Random Facts # 5: Istanbul Was Constantinople

People who know me know that I love Istanbul. I've been to a lot of the world's great cities, and they all have their own ups and downs, but Istanbul might be the only one that feels completely unique. A question I see asked a lot is why the name of the city is Istanbul, when throughout history it was called Constantinople. The question was popularized in the 1953 song Istanbul (Not Constantinople), which asks the question throughout without answering it. The history of the song itself is kind of interesting; it was written to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the city falling to the Ottoman Turks, and has been covered by several groups (people of my generation are most familiar with the 1990 cover by They Might Be Giants).

You Guys should have asked someone!

The city has had many names in many languages. According to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, the original settlement that sat in the current location of the city was called Lygos. The first verifiable name of the settlement, however, was Byzantion. Nobody is 100% sure where this name comes from; it's probably Thracian in origin and may have been named after a person, but apart from that we can't be sure. In Latin, the name of the settlement became "Byzantium", the name by which the settlement was known in the Roman Empire. It's from this name we get the "Byzantine Empire", and from that, the word "byzantine", meaning overly complex or archaic.

In the Third Century CE the city was involved in a rebellion, and the Roman emperor Septimius Severus had the city razed. However, its location was too strategic to abandon, and he had it rebuilt with new fortifications. He changed the name officially to Augusta Antonina in honor of his son Antonius, who confusingly became known instead by the name Caracalla after becoming emperor in his own right.   Despite the official change, the city was still probably known as Byzantion/Byzantium (depending on if a person was speaking Greek or Latin) colloquially, and shortly after Caracalla's death the town officially reverted back to its previous name.

Sorry Septimius

Until this point, the city was of a moderate size but had never been especially influential, apart from its strategic location. However, that changed with the accession to the throne of Constantine the Great. Rome had become a troublesome capital; its internal politics were a constant distraction for the ruler of a world empire, and it was geographically too distant from the rich provinces of the east and the Empire's most troublesome frontiers in Eastern Europe and on the border with Persia. Byzantium was an excellent location for a new capital for several reasons. The settlement there was minor enough to be rebuilt to the emperor's taste without being completely remote. It was highly defensible, and sat in a strategically important location between Europe and Asia and the Black Sea and Mediterranean.

At its height the city was the largest in the world

The city was rebuilt over the course of 6 years, and was consecrated and designated the new capital on May 11, 330 (the date now considered the traditional birthday of the city). Curiously, during this early period the city was referred to by several different "official" names. New Rome was probably the most common (and the one eventually adopted by the Church), but others included the unimaginative "East Rome", "Mother Rome", and "Constantine's Rome."

Constantine gives his new city to the world.... Probably not to scale

After the Emperor's death though, the city gradually became to be known simply as Constantinople (Constantine's City or the City of Constantine). Of course, this is the modern English translation of the name of the city, and its name varied by language, in Latin it was Constantinopolis and in Greek Konstantinoupolis. It would retain this name for the rest of its life under the Byzantine Empire (as well as during the period when it was controlled by the Frankish Latin Empire).

Justinian added heavily to the city's architecture
including the Hagia Sophia

In 1453 the city fell to the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mehmed II "The Conquerer". And the Turks... kept the name. It was changed to Kostantiniyye, the name the city had had in the Turkic and Arabic speaking worlds for centuries, but meaning the same thing. This remained the official name for the city from 1453, all the way to the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in 1923. To put in perspective how recently the city was still officially "Constantinople", here's a fun fact: this was the official name of the city the last time the Chicago Cubs won the World Series!

Istanbul during World War I

So how and when and why did the name change? Well the name "Istanbul", or at least variants of it, is actually pretty old despite its lack of official status. In Greek, there's a phrase that originally referred to various cities, στην Πόλη (To the City). This is pronounced like "Stim Boli), and overtime became contracted into a single word, basically meaning "THE City". Think of it as the way Americans often refer to New York simply as "The City" or "The Big Apple." It wasn't an official name, but it does seem to have been common in several languages, including Greek, Armenian, Arabic, and, of course, Turkish. During the Ottoman period the Turkish form of the word, İstanbul (also the modern name for the city). Yes, just in case of font issues, there is a dot over the capital I in the name of the city in the Turkish language. 

Istanbul was colloquial, but it was occasionally used "officially." For instance, the commander of the garrison for the city was known as the İstanbul ağası, or "City Chief/Lord Commander of the City". Throughout the Ottoman period the Ottomans did occasionally use this name in official capacities, but Kostantiniyye was still the official term, though often combined into long poetic descriptions for the city. The city of course had other names, such as "The Sublime Porte" (though technically this referred only to the Sultan's Palace), but Kostantiniyye was by far the most common.

When the Ottomans fell a man named Mustafa Kemal, later named Ataturk (father of the turks) became leader of the country  Okay, that's a gross oversimplification of the Turkish Revolution, but we don't have time for that here. Upon coming to power Ataturk wanted to sharply secularize and modernize his country, which had been referred to the sick man of Europe for some time and had suffered humiliating defeat after humiliating defeat. For decades up to this point, everyone in the country, regardless of ethnicity or religion, had been referring to the city as Istanbul in everyday speech. Constantinople was still used as an archaic holdover in official documents, the Ottoman postal system, etc., but nearly everyone else had dropped it. And so to simplify things, Ataturk had the name of the city officially changed. A handful of groups still used different, older names (the Greek Patriarch of the city still technically uses "New Rome"), but the Turkish government and nearly everyone else simply adopted the new name without complaint because it's what they'd been using for their entire lives anyway. 

If you're still confused, blame Ataturk

So there you have it. There's no mystery or strange answer. The city's name is just taken from "the city" and eventually became the go-to name used in everyday language. When this happened the official name was changed to fit with what everyone was already using. 

That's it for today, see you next time! 

Opinion: Civilization VI: My Thought on Firaxis' Ruler Choices

I love video games, especially ones with a historical setting. Sid Meier's Civilization series has long been considered a great way for people to get into strategy and historical video games. First released in 1991, the games are easy for casual players to pick up but are deep enough to entertain veterans. The last installment, Civ V was  developed by Firaxis and released in 2010 to wide critical acclaim and commercial success, and many people (myself included) have pumped hundreds of hours into it. The next game, Civilization VI, is being released by Firaxis in a couple of weeks and I thought I would take a few minutes to share my opinions on the leaders chosen for each Civ in the new game.

If you've never played one of these games, the concept is simple. You choose a civilization and attempt to achieve victory through military conquest, scientific achievement, or cultural dominance. Each civilization is based on one from the real world, and gets certain bonuses and traits based on their history. For example, Japan often plays as a military powerful civilization, especially in the mid-game, reflecting the dominance of the Samurai, while Egypt often gets a bonus to the construction of wonders (unique buildings such as the Pyramids which give powerful bonuses). Each Civ is also led by a historical leader who you interact with through diplomacy. These are usually famous, iconic leaders from the history of the civilization chosen both for their fame and for the fact that they are emblematic in some of their culture as a whole.

Screenshot from Civilization VI, showing a city which has constructed the Pyramids of Giza wonder.

As of right now, we have been told about 19 civs the game will launch with. Here are my thoughts on their leaders and why I like or dislike the choice. I've divided the civs into three groups. Choices I think are great overall any that I can't find serious fault with, choices that I think were bad with few redeeming qualities, and choices which I either think are good with some reservations or choices where I don't know enough about the leader's history to make a solid judgement at this point. This is based totally on my personal opinion, so let me know if you disagree with any of my thoughts!

The Good

Also, Trajan was ripped which is a nice bonus

Rome
Leader: Trajan
YES. Trajan is by far my favorite Emperor. The first history paper I ever wrote, way back in the mists of time, was a 20 page research biography of this guy. Regarded as one of the top five emperors (only Augustus is regularly ranked higher) the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, and no emperor after him would meet the same level of success. In character, he's also one of the most old school "Romans" of the emperors (despite being born in Spain!). He was a great military leader, but also well educated in the law and with an interest in the arts, philosophy, and architecture. Less famous to the general public than Julius Caesar or one of the "bad" emperors like Nero or Caligula, I'm glad to see Trajan getting a little love from modern pop culture. My favorite choice for a leader by far.


America

He also had a Judo gym built in the White House basement
so he had a place to beat up visitors. I'm not even making
that up!

Leader Theodore (my hero) Roosevelt
It's not Lincoln or Washington, so I'm happy. Any of you that know my love for the National Parks will understand why I like Teddy. He usually makes the top five list of greatest presidents, a fact illustrated by his inclusion on Mt. Rushmore alongside Lincoln and two of the founding fathers. He was the most quintessentially "American" president I can think of; a brave soldier, an outdoorsman and explorer, a great politician and businessman, a successful rancher and socialite. He blended as equally well with New York high society as he did with poor cowboys out on the range. His campaign platform was shockingly progressive for the time, and even today he would be considered something of a radical for his drive to constantly improve the lives of ordinary Americans while simultaneously tackling corruption and other outside influences. In many ways he was, to me at least, the most "representative' of all of our presidents, and I couldn't be happier with this choice.

Russia
Leader: Peter the Great
I love love love this choice. Peter is arguably the greatest of all of the historical Czars, and is one of the few that can probably be identified by name by a wider western audience. With that said, I wouldn't have minded if they had stuck with Catherine the Great from Civ V, but it seems that they are trying to change things up in this game so I am still a happy camper!

Besides, modern games don't feature enough Mustaches

Germany

And if you can't tell, Barbarossa was also a really nice
looking guy!

Leader: Frederick Barbarossa 
For once medieval Germany gets some love. Usually in games we get one of two German nations; the Imperial one from the Franco-Prussian War to WWI, or the Nazi one. I'm glad to see the Holy Roman Empire represented in this game. Frederick was extremely powerful in his time; his death while on the way to the Holy Land is seen by some as the beginning of the end of the chances for success during the Crusades. He's considered the greatest medieval German Emperor, and during his own time was both feared and respected by his fellow European leaders. He challenged popes, re-established the German states as a power to be reckoned with, and became a legend while still alive. A fantastic choice even if he wasn't from a grossly under-represented period of German and central European history.

Scythia
Leader: Tomyris
This is another fantastic Choice. Tomyris was a Queen of the Massagetae, a group of Scythians who resisted the expansion of the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great. Under her leadership the Scythians not only defeated but killed Cyrus, and she was one of the few ancient female rulers spoken of with admiration by the ancient Greek historians. She's also quite probably the most famous Scythian leader by far, so that's a plus too!

This painting is titled "Tomyris Plunges the Head of the Dead Cyrus into a Vessel of Blood." She's definitely
the leader on this list that I'd be most afraid to fight!

Norway

Call me a skeptic, but I get the feeling that the historical Harald
may have been a little more frightening looking than this...

Leader: Harald Hardrada
Harald is often called the last viking king, and for good reason. In 1066 he led an invasion of England shortly before William the Bastards more famous (and more successful) attempt. Harald was killed during the invasion; at the Battle of Stamford Bridge he wore no armor, entered a berserk rage, and laid into the thick of the fighting swinging his sword two handed. Before becoming king, Harald led a true viking life too; he was a mercenary, fought in several battles, and even served as a bodyguard to the Byzantine Emperor in Constantinople. He's one of the most fondly remembered kings of Norway, and his death is often cited as the end of the viking age.

Spain

Philip also had excellent taste in his choice of codpiece and pantyhose. 

Leader: Philip II
Philip was one of the most effective leaders in Spanish history. At one point he was married to the Queen of England (Mary I) and influenced the course of two of the three great powers of Europe. During his rule Spain entered its golden age and the Spanish empire was at the peak of its power. It controlled colonies across the Americas, and its treasure fleets became legendary and inspired the first raiders to attack treasure ships igniting the Golden Age of Piracy.  He launched the Spanish Armada against England (spoiler alert: it failed miserably), and was arguably the most famous, influential monarch in his own time. After his death Spain began its slow, steady decline and the nation never really had another truly successful monarch, further cementing Philip's legacy.  Great choice.

Japan
Leader: Hojo Tokimune
While not my favorite choice, I do think this is perhaps the most interesting on the list. The obvious choices would have been Emperor Meiji or Tokugawa, but instead they chose the leader who defeated the Mongols. More well known in Japan than in the west, this guy was still extremely influential and stands as one of the greatest medieval leaders of Japan. In addition to kicking Mongol butt, he also helped to spread Zen Buddhism among the upper classes of Japanese society and helped to cement the form that the Samurai class would eventually take.

He's actually so poorly known in the west, this is the first image result
on a Goolge search of his name. No joke! 

China

Leader: Qin Shi Huang
I mean, they picked the leader the modern country is freaking named for. It can't get much more iconic than that. There are a lot of interesting and iconic leaders they could have gone for , but Qin is a really solid choice. For centuries Qin was remembered for his brutal treatment of his subjects, but in recent decades he has come to be viewed more objectively. This is in part because of Mao, who was fascinated by Qin and ordered that the history of his reign be taught in China in a positive light.  He burned books, built the terracotta army, had numerous concubines (who he had buried alive with him when he died), and his tomb remains unopened due to the pools and rivers of liquid mercury he ordered to surround his body after death. Say what you will about Qin, but the guy led an interesting life and aside from a few of the mongols, is definitely the Chinese emperor best known to us here in the west today.

The Bad

France

Because when I think of France, I think of a Florentine
banking family! 

Leader; Catherine de Medici
No no no no no no no. This is by far my least favorite choice for a leader in the game. I suspect that the developers were seeking to include more female rulers into the game, and wanted to get away from the whole Joan of Arc stereotype. With that said, it's still a bad choice. Firstly, Catherine wasn't French, she was Italian (duh). She never really ruled in her own right, though as regent for her sons during their minority she did wield a high degree of influence in the way the Kingdom was ruled, though no without opposition. She wasn't very popular during her own lifetime in France, and her legacy today continues to be mixed. My big issue here is that France has SO MANY iconic leaders; Napoleon, Louis XIV, Charlemagne (sort of), St. Louis, Philip Augustus, and so many more. Instead they chose an extremely interesting but otherwise extremely odd choice.

Egypt

Beauty is no substitute for a solid Roman legion at your side

Leader: Cleopatra
This one is nearly as bad as France in my mind. I have serious beef with Cleopatra as a historical figure, so much so that I am probably going to write a post on it in the near future. Where do I begin? Firstly, she's not Egyptian, she's Macedonian Greek. Secondly, her greatest accomplishment was getting her empire taken by a Roman teenager (the future Augustus) and his drinking buddy (Agrippa). Okay, that's a gross oversimplification, but it's also not entirely untrue. Much better choice (and to keep the gender diversity going) would have been Hatshepsut; she was and still is considered one of the greatest rulers of Ancient Egypt, but didn't get the benefit of a Shakespeare starring role or an Elizabeth Taylor film. And she was, you know, actually effective. And Egyptian.

The In-Between

Arabia

Ok, not a historical depiction, but Ghassan Massoud's
portrayal of Saladin in Ridley Scott's Kingdom of Heaven
is one of my favorite portrayals of a historical figure in a
film ever, and I'll use an image of him whenever I get
the excuse! 

Leader: Saladin
I am torn on this one. As a historical figure, I love Saladin and he's one of the most recognizable Muslim leaders in the west thanks to his part in recapturing Jerusalem from the crusaders. With that said, it's a bit of a weird choice for a couple of reasons. Firstly, Saladin wasn't an Arab; he was Kurdish. Secondly, The dynasty which he founded (the Ayyubids) didn't control more than a thin strip of coastal Arabia at his death. I think a more representative leader may have been someone like the Caliph Harun al-Rashid. He was the leader of Arabia in Civ V though, and it may be that the game's developers wished to mix things up a bit. If Saladin was instead represented as the leader of the Ayyubids instead of the more generic "Arabs" this would be one of my favorite choices.

Sumeria
Leader: Gilgamesh
Hmmm. On the one hand, he may have not existed or may be a composite character. On the other, he's the most recognizable leader of ancient Sumeria by far (again, if he existed). Most famous for his depiction in the Epic of Gilgamesh, this is (so far) the most ancient ruler in the game. In this case I'll give it a pass; we don't necessarily have a ton of reliable information on most of the leaders of Sumeria, and I like the fact that the Sumerians getting featured in a game.

The Epic of Gilgamesh

Greece 

Fun Fact: Pericles would wear his helmet tipped up on his head
like this even while in civilian clothes while walking around Athens.
This made him a target of ridicule and mockery by many in the city. 

Leader; Pericles
The beef I have here is that Pericles is a great leader for say, Athens. But all of Greece? I'm not sure what the Spartans, Corinthians, Macedonians, etc. would have had to say about that. This is a criticism I have for a few leaders on this list; the consolidation of many different cultures and civilizations into one big umbrella for the sake of simplicity. Yes, when many people think of ancient Greece they think of Athens, but I do think it is a bit of a disservice to all of the other city-states in that modern country to focus on them exclusively. I'd have liked to have seen Athens with Pericles, and then maybe Sparta with Leonidas or something similar instead.

Kongo 

I pulled this image from a site in what I presume is the Kongo language.
I can't vouch for the historical accuracy of the depiction of Alfonso here. Or if
this is even him. Google translate has failed me. But I wanted to go with
an African depiction of him, so there you go. 

Leader: Mvemba a Nzinga (Alfonso I)
I'll confess, I knew next to nothing about this guy when I saw his announcement trailer. He's definitely the leader (and the Civ) I knew the least about. Also known as Alfonso I after his conversion, he apparently led the Christianization of Kongo and attempted to modernize the Empire. I am told by people more in the know that there are potentially better leaders in terms of influence, but this guy is the one that people are most likely to know. I'm putting this one down as "ambivalent" until I have a chance to read some more!

India
Leader: Gandhi
As a historical choice, this is weird because, of course, Gandhi never "led" India. However, he's almost certainly been included because India/Gandhi have been in the Civ series since day one. In his first appearance the Gandhi AI was bugged, causing the civ to act abnormally. Hilariously, the leader known as one of the greatest representatives on non-violence was prone to launching unprovoked nuclear strikes on his neighbors and generally being extremely aggressive in the game. Because of the popularity of this disparity (even among Indian fans of the series), in sequels to the original game Gandhi was often programmed to act randomly or aggressively intentionally.  I'll give this one a pass simply for the tradition of it in Civ games. That said, I wouldn't have minded seeing some new blood. Ashoka would have been a fantastic choice!

The nuke-happy Gandhi thing quickly became one of the original gaming memes, and remains popular to this day. 

Brazil

Pedro might also win the "best beard" award in Civ Vi. It's
definitely a tossup between him and Barbarossa...

Leader; Pedro II
After Kongo, Brazil is probably the Civ that I know the least about. Under Pedro Brazil became the most wealthy, stable nation in South America and became something of a beacon of liberal ideals under his leadership. He was quite literally a genius and polymath who had interest in a number of scientific, historical, and cultural subjects. Pedro shaped Brazil to have the independent, unique culture and identity it enjoys today, distinct form Portugal or Brazil's Spanish-speaking neighbors. He's often rated as the greatest leader in Brazilian history, and I don't know enough about the subject to dispute that!


Aztecs

Montezuma depicted in an Aztec codex, created shortly after the
Spanish conquest. I have no idea what's going on in this picture
though...

Leader: Montezuma I
Not a whole lot of competition here to be honest, but still a solid choice. Montezuma essentially created the Aztec Empire and brought it to its largest extent. Unlike his more famous successor Montezuma II, he also didn't have to deal with any pesky European horses, armor, firearms, or diseases. Montezuma is one of the very few native leaders from before the European arrival in the Americas for which we have any information, and this has made him a popular topic of study dating back as far as the decades immediately after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. The only other real choice for leader here would be Montezuma II, but because he was unable to resist European aggression, his legacy and actual effectiveness as ruler are far less clear than in his ancestor's case.

England

God Save the Queen

Leader: Victoria
I both love and hate this choice. Victoria is one of the greatest monarchs in history; heck the last major "named" age bore her name, and if that's not influence, I don't know what is. My problem here is that along with the leader, many of the features of the civ in the game are from the British Empire, not just England. A simple name change to "Great Britain" or similar and I would be happy. Then they could introduce other civs for England, Scotland, Wales, etc. I know its kind of a pedantic complaint, but this IS an opinion post afterall!




And that's it! No sources today, as I don't think they're really needed. If you disagree with any of my assessments, or can think of better leaders in any of these cases, let me know!

Random Facts: The German Pirate Ship of World War I

The navies of the First World War don't get a lot of attention compared to their Second World War counterparts. In some ways this makes sense; Jutland was the only major fleet vs. fleet engagement of the war, and most of the action at sea was conducted by commerce raiders and submarines against commercial and industrial shipping. One ship of the German Empire, the SMS Emden, participated in the latter and it's one of my favorite stories of the war.

Emden

Emden was one of a number of ships constructed by the German Empire during the naval arms race that was partially responsible for the outbreak of World War I. She was laid down in Danzig in 1906 and was completed three years later. Emden was a Dresden class light cruiser, designed for long-range service in ports controlled by the young German Empire across the globe.

Commander von Müller

In 1913 Emden was put under the command of Karl von Müller who was soon promoted to the rank Emden already had a solid reputation;  she had served to bombard enemy positions during a colonial rebellion in 1911, helped protect Europeans during the Chinese Revolution in that same year, and patrolled around the Pacific. Von Müller had a similar solid reputation; he had served in Prince Heinirich of Prussia's staff and received commendations from a number of senior German military commanders, including the German grand admiral Alfred von Tirpitz. Commander von Müller fired Emden's guns in anger for the first time on August 26, 1913, when Chinese rebels attacked the ship while she was in port off the coast of Nanjing.
of Commander in the Imperial Navy.

On the outbreak of World War I Emden and her crew were the only ship in port at Tsingtao, Germany's naval headquarters in the Pacific, because the rest of the fleet was on patrol out at sea. Von Müller put to sea and on August 3, 1914 (the day after Germany declared war on Russia) he captured the Russian ship Ryazan. This was the first ship to be captured by any side during the war, and instantly made von Müller and his ship minor celebrities both back in Germany and around the world.

After the German Pacific squadron had rendezvoused, its commander Maximillian von Spee made Emden was the fastest German vessel in the Pacific, and von Spee approved of the plan. This was the last time the two naval commanders would see each other, as von Spee would be killed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands after his small squadron was annihilated by a larger British fleet only four months later.

Painting showing the destruction of SMS Scharnorst and the death of Admiral von Spee

the decision to abandon the Pacific. Japan had entered the war as an enemy to Germany, and would soon capture Tsingtao. Between the Japanese Imperial Fleet, and the British and its colonial fleets, von Spee knew that his fleet could not last long. However, von Müller requested to stay behind; this would allow Germany to sting Britain's valuable shipping in the Pacific while the rest of the fleet attempted to make a run to Germany by sailing around South America.

Commander von Müller decided that Emden would stalk the busy shipping routes between the important ports of Singapore, Colombo, and Aden to disrupt allied shipping. This mission would make Emden and her crew world famous. While navigating through the Lombok Strait in Indonesia, Emden intercepted the wireless signal from a British armored cruiser. Knowing that to be a good raider and pirate secrecy was key, von Müller ordered that a dummy smokestack be added to Emden, increasing its number of stacks from three to four. This would allow the ship to pass for a British light cruiser at a distance, which might give her time to escape if outgunned.

The tactics Emden used were simple but effective, and hearkened back to those used by buccaneers during the Golden Age of Piracy. Assisted by her fake smokestack, Emden would approach an enemy vessel with no flag raised. The other vessel would assume that the ship was British, and allow her to approach, whereupon von Müller would order the German naval ensign raised. The Germans would then broadcast a message to their prey; turn off your engines, unman your weapons, do not broadcast a radio message and prepare to be boarded.

Emden arrived in the Bay of Bengal in early September without incident; the British still believed that she was with the rest of the German squadron, and she had not been spotted thanks to von Müller's strict radio discipline and camouflage. The first ship Emden captured was a Greek collier carrying supplies for the British; amazingly the captain of the vessel agreed to enter von Müller's personal service after he offered to pay the crew! For the next month the ship stalked the waters around India, capturing 5 more ships. Von Müller transferred the prisoners from his other prizes to one of the vessels and sank the rest. After capturing a Norwegian freighter, von Müller discovered that the ship was carrying no war material and decided to let her and her crew go free. The Norwegians, astounded and grateful for this act of chivalry, warned that Emden was in danger; enemy warships were aware that a German vessel may be in the area which convinced von Müller to leave the waters he had been operating in.

Shortly after, Emden captured an Italian vessel but released it because she also wasn't carrying war material. Unlike the grateful Norwegians however, the Italians immediately contacted the British, confirming their fears of an enemy ship in their valuable colonial waters. They immediately halted all shipping off the coast of eastern India and sent six British and Japanese ships to hunt for the Emden and patrol neutral coaling stations that she was likely to use.

Commander von Müller was aware that he only had two options; continue operating in the area and pull a stunt to further humiliate the British, or flee. He chose the former, and decided to bombard the port at Madras. On September 22 he anchored 3,000 yards from the piers there and opened fire in the middle of the night. Emden fired 130 rounds in only a few minutes and escaped before the British coastal defenses could even locate the ship. Emden had managed to destroy or damage several oil tanks and sink a British merchant ship which had been at dock. The British, despite the loss to the prestige to the Royal Navy, were forced to again order a halt to shipping in the area. In less than a month Emden was responsible for the value of British exports from India to drop by over 60%, a severe blow to the economic interest of the already strained British Empire.

Oil tanks burn at the port of Madras

Into early October Emden continued to her operations, capturing or sinking several more ships. One of these, a collier, was kept and was used to support the Emden by carrying supplies. Despite these successes, the ship was running low on fuel and her crew was exhausted. von Müller decided to head for Diego Garcia, a small atoll in the middle of the Indian Ocean with a small British presence and coaling station. On arriving, and expecting a fight, von Müller discovered that the British military garrison on the island had not yet learned of the outbreak of the war due to the failure of their wireless system. Showing a level of confidence bordering on arrogance, von Müller decided to stay in the port to be treated to warm receptions by the garrison. He used this time to rest his crew, rearm, and even repaint the Emden! 

The Isolated Atoll, Diego Garcia

Emden soon returned to her duties, evading the British cruiser Hampshire by detecting the vessel's radio signals. Despite their care, the British did recapture one of the Emden's captured vessels, depriving her of a coal ship. However, von Müller was not phased, and between October 15 and October 20 captured or sunk another six enemy ships! Not wishing to tempt fate (or the British) von Müller declared his activities off the Indian coast a success and decided to move to a new hunting ground.

Zhemchug

Knowing how successful his attack on Madras had been, von Müller then decided to attack the port of Penang in British Malaya. On arriving early in the morning on October 28, Müller discovered that a russian warship, the protected cruiser Zhemchug was docked there for repairs. Zhemchug was one of the unfortunate survivors of the Second Russian Pacific Squadron which had been annihilated during the Russo-Japanese War, an incident which I talk more about here. The Russian vessel was totally helpless and Emden pulled along the Russian vessel and opened fire with torpedoes and guns at a range of only 300 yards. The Russians had time to fire only a single shot at the Emden, which missed badly, before their ship was torn apart by a massive explosion which killed 81 of her crew and injured more than 100 others. Two older French vessels which also happened to be at port opened fire, but the Emden's veteran crew easily evaded their shots. Worried that reinforcements would soon arrive, the Germans began to depart, but stopped at the mouth of the harbor to capture and sink a British freighter loaded down with ammunition. While executing this operation the French destroyer Mousquet was spotted. Her crew was confused and unsure of what was happening, and the Emden quickly opened fire and destroyed her. Instead of fleeing, von Müller stopped his vessel and rescued 36 of the French crew before continuing on their way. They were released onto a British ship which the Emden captured a few days later, after promising not to return to the war against the Germans.

This attack badly shocked the Entente powers, and caused them to halt a series of convoys which were to depart of Australia loaded with troops and war material because the British were unsure if they could protect them.

Emden then decided to travel to the major British coaling station in the Cocos Islands, hoping to destroy the wireless station there and to divert enemy ships which might be looking for him. She arrived at the station on Direction Island on November 9, and sent a landing party ashore to destroy radio tower. The locals agreed to help the party, partly because they were impressed to meet some of the crew from the now famous ship, and partly because the Germans agreed to spare a tennis court near the tower which was popular with the locals! Despite  their speed though the station was able to broadcast a distress message, which was received by the Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney. The Australians immediately headed for the island, but thanks to a mistake in charting the enemy vessels radio transmissions, von Müller believed that they were too far away to be  a threat.

German landing party arriving on Direction Island. The ship on which they would
later make their escape can be seen in the background, with three masts. 

Sydney soon arrived on the scene, and von Müller was instantly aware that he was outgunned. Sydney's guns were far larger than his own, and if damaged could quickly return to a nearby friendly port for repairs, a luxury the Emden did not have. Forced to abandon their shore party, the Emden attempted to run, but was soon overtaken. Emden opened fire first, firing shells rapidly (she was capable of firing a salvo every ten seconds) and scoring several hits. However, they caused little damage, and when Sydney returned fire her large caliber guns were devastating. Commander von Müller made four attempts to close the range so that he could use his torpedoes, but every time the Sydney simply turned away and pummeled the Emden with her superior guns which inflicted devastating damage. An hour and forty-five minutes after the battle began, Emden ceased fire. Two of her (real) smokestacks were gone, she was riddled with holes, and dozens of her crew were dead or injured.

The Emden after being crippled fighting the Sydney

Without any other options, von Müller ran his beloved ship aground on the nearby North Keeling Island in the hopes of saving his surviving crew. The crew destroyed the remaining weapons and ammunition on board, and burned their code books so that none of it would fall into enemy hands. During the short battle the Sydney lost four crewmen and suffered minor damage, but the Emden's crew of 376 suffered 133 deaths. Von Müller and what remained of his crew were captured; most were sent to a POW camp on Malta while the injured were sent to Australia, The landing party were able to escape; they stole a British vessel from Direction Island, were able to make it to Yemen, and then made an arduous journey across the Arabian peninsula and the Ottoman Empire to Constantinople, where they were then sent on to Berlin as heroes. Commander von Müller wound up in a POW camp for officers in England, where in 1917 he led an attempted escape of 21 prisoners through an underground tunnel. A month before the war ended in 1918, he was repatriated to Germany where he was celebrated as a hero.

Commander von Müller recieved the Pour le Merite (Imperial Germany's highest honor) and was promoted to a full captain. He retired from the navy in 1919, an international celebrity and one of the few German heroes to survive the war with his reputation intact. He became a politician, and died from a bout of malaria in March, 1923.

HMAS Sydney

During and after the war Emden and her crew were celebrities. Von Müller's chivalrous treatment of enemies, including allowing all men to disembark from enemy vessels before they were sunk, made him a target of praise in both German and foreign media. Von Müller was to many's eye the last of a dead breed; a swashbuckling gentleman pirate full of bravado and charm. Unlike submarines and U-Boats, Von Müller's brazen acts were seen as those of extreme gallantry. Emden was awarded the Iron Cross, as was every member of her crew. Numerous streets and other locations in Germany were named for von Müller, the Emden, or her crew, and many of those places still retain their name to this day. Four further German naval vessels were named for Emden, and all carried a painted Iron Cross in honor of their namesake; the last of these was decommissioned in 2013. In Australia the vessel became important, as did her killer the Sydney, because this was the first operation a semi-independent Australian military conducted successfully against a foreign power. More than seven films, all produced in Australia or Germany, were created featuring the Emden, with the latest German adaptation released in 2012. In the Tamil language the ship's name (modified to Amdan) entered the language as a word for someone who is tough and sneaky, and in the Malayalam language the ward Emadan means something powerful or large.

Despite this legacy, the ship and her exploits are little known here in America, but hopefully I've changed that. If you'd like to read more about the Emden and her brave pirate crew, check out the books Gentleman of War: The Amazing Story of Commander Karl Von Muller and the SMS Emden by Dan Van Der Vat, or especially The Last Cruise of the Emden: The Amazing True WWI Story of a German Light Cruiser and Her Courageous Crew by Edwin Hoyt.

See you next time!

A Hobbit on the Western Front: JRR Tolkien's First World War

Note: This post was originally supposed to go up on September 22nd, Hobbit Day. Due to an injury I was forced to postpone until today. 

I am a huge JRR Tolkien fanatic. Since first reading The Hobbit as a child, I have become nearly obsessed with the world created by Tolkien. I've read all of the works he published during his lifetime, as well as all of those published by his son Christopher after the author's death. The older I get the more fascinated I become not just by his works, but by the man himself. Tolkien was many things; an Oxford scholar, a linguist and philologist fluent in dozens of languages, a fantasy author, a caring husband and father, and for a brief period during the First World War, a soldier.

Twenty four year old Tolkien in 1916

Our story begins in 1911 while Tolkien was attending King Edward's School in Birmingham, England. Like many high school aged boys, Tolkien kept a tight circle of friends who in 1911 formed a club, the "Tea Club, Barrovian Society" or TCBS. Named for the fact that the group met for Tea at a local store called Barrows, the group consisted of a core group of Tolkien and his three closest friends, Christopher Wiseman (Tolkien's best friend and namesake of the author's son), Geoffrey Bache Smith, and Robert Gilson. Additional members were included in the periphery; Ralph Payton, Sidney Barrowclough, Thomas Barnsley, Vincent Trought, and Wilfrid Payton. The group was close until they moved on to their college careers, and continued corresponding, sometimes with gaps, for the next several years.

Gilson, Tolkien, Wiseman, and Smith in military uniforms

Tolkien then attending Oxford, where he began studying languages and, inspired by his intellectual friends,

Edith Tolkien

began writing poetry. In a poem written September 24, 1914 Tolkien first used some of the themes and words which we would later find in his Middle Earth writings. It was also at this time that Tolkien became secretly engaged to his lifelong love, Edith.

When the war broke out in 1914, Tolkien faced a difficult decision. He was only a year away from being able to graduate, and Tolkien felt no particular hatred for Germany or any great level of particular patriotism. His ancestors had originated in Saxony, and Tolkien was already by this time fascinated by Germanic languages and mythology. On the other side of the coin, he faced immense pressure to enlist immediately. Nearly all of his friends did so, and he might be publicly shamed and mocked by many in the British public who believed any young man refusing to fight was simply a coward. This is a fascinating topic all on its own and I hope to one day to a full post on it; public pressure for young men to go fight was staggering. It came from all walks of life; family members, friends, and the clergy. Groups of women formed a "white feather" movement, and would shame men they met in civilian clothing by handing them a white feather, a physical symbol of cowardice. Tolkien himself would later write "In those days chaps joined up, or were scorned publicly."

Public pressure to go to war was immense

As a compromise, Tolkien entered into a program similar to today's ROTC: he would defer his enlistment until graduation, but would receive limited military training while still in school with the idea that he would join the Army as an officer at graduation. In April 1915 this finally came to fruition; Tolkien graduated at the top of his class from Oxford. While a great success all in its own right, the class was small - only 8 men and 17 women sat through their exams. The rest had joined the war effort.

Upon graduation Tolkien was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the Lancashire Fusiliers. Many of Tolkien's friends and academic colleagues, including G.B. Smith, had joined a "literary" unit of officers in the

A Webley revolver, the only weapon Tolkien regularly
carried throughout the war. 

Regiment's 19th Battalion, nicknamed the "Salford Pals" after the fact that the officers and enlisted men were mostly groups of friends who had signed up for the war together from the town of Salford. By the time Tolkien graduated however this unit was full, and so he was assigned to train with the Regiment's 13th Battalion in Staffordshire. Tolkien hated army life, and took as many opportunities as he could to visit friends or Edith.

Because of his skill in linguistics, Tolkien was assigned to become a signal officer. These were the men responsible for sending and receiving messages while a unit was at the front, and as a result they had to have some familiarity with cryptology and code words. It was also, luckily for Tolkien, a relatively safe job as these men spent most of their time in command dugouts. In early 1916 it became obvious that Tolkien was being shipped out, and he and Edith married.

One June 4,1916 Tolkien was shipped overseas, the last of the TCBS to do so. At this point in the war the Western Front was already a meat grinder, and Tolkien did not expect to survive the war. He would later write: "Junior officers were being killed off, a dozen a minute. Parting from my wife then... it was like a death."  The day before, on June 3rd, Tolkien learned that his best friend Christopher Wiseman had been aboard the battleship HMS Superb at the battle of Jutland; thankfully though Superb had received no hits and Wisemen survived. However, morale across the British military took a blow as a result of the battle; the invincible British navy had been fought to a draw by the Germans and Tolkien left for France in an even worse mood than he would have been otherwise.

HMS Superb

Tolkien hoped to serve overseas with the British 32nd Division, of which G.B. Smith's 19th Lancashire Fusiliers were a part. Tolkien was needed elsewhere however, and was assigned to serve with the 11th Lancashire in the 25th Division. He was now sure he would not be serving with any friends, and to make matters worse his luggage had been lost in transit and he was forced to purchase substandard replacements, including new bedding. Tolkien would then spend days in Etaples, the British base for new recruits on the continent while he awaited orders from his new unit. He was equipped with a gas mask, helmet, and rifle, and spent the days bored and exhausted. During this time he created a code made up of dots to bypass military censors who might be reading his mail so that Edith could keep track of where he was.

The reason for the holdup in orders was apparent by the middle of June; the British would be launching a great offensive which, it was hoped, would end the war. Tolkien arrived northeast of Amiens to join his unit two days before the offensive was set to begin. Many of the men in Tolkien's unit were new recruits, and the next couple of days were spent training, trying to get them up to speed for the planned attack. Most of the enlisted men were working men from Lancashire whom Tolkien soon grew to admire. However, most of the officers were career soldiers whom Tolkien found gruff, uneducated, and rude and unlike many he made few friends in the army. To his immense relief, during training, Tolkien learned that his unit was being used as a reserve, and would not be used in the first wave of attacks. On July 1st, the Battle of the Somme began.

On the first day of the Battle, Tolkien's close friend and TCBS member Rob Gilson took command of a

British soldiers overlooking "Sausage Valley", near
where Robert Gilson was killed in action

platoon in the Cambridgeshire Battalion. After going over the top his unit fell under heavy fire, and Gilson was killed by an exploding shell. Of 16 officer's in Gilson's unit, only one returned from the attack alive and unwounded. Rob Gilson was the first of Tolkien's close friends to die on the Somme, but he was not the last.

On July 3rd Tolkien came under enemy fire for the first time while stationed in the ruined village of Bouzincourt, three miles behind the front line. German artillery bombarded the town, but every shell missed the British troops sheltering there. After finally being cleared to move out of cover (German aircraft, artillery, and balloons were a major threat even this far behind the line) Tolkien's unit was assigned the grim task of digging graves for the thousands of men killed so far on the Somme. On July 6 Tolkien's unit moved out for combat, but he remained behind to assist the 25th Division's signal corps. The same day G.B. Smith arrived in the village, having seen heavy combat in the last few days; more than half of his battalion had already been killed or wounded. They spent the next few days discussing poetry and literature, wondering what had happened to Gilson (neither knew of his death yet), and trying to keep each other distracted.

Tolkien was ordered to move out with the 11th Lancashire on July 14th. That night they arrived at the destroyed village of La Boisselle and moved into former German lines which had been taken in a previous assault. Here Tolkien saw bodies, German and British, strewn across the barbed wire and the mud of no-man's land. At 2 AM the next morning the 11th Lancashire took part in an assault on German positions. During this time Tolkien stayed behind the main body of men, working feverishly to maintain communications between this new front and British lines. Despite their best efforts though, the British were soon beaten back.

The rest of that weekend the Lancashire men and Tolkien were involved in repeated attacks on the Germans at Ovillers. Late in the day Sunday they led a final charge which forced the Germans to surrender, and Tolkien spent the next day, Monday, July 17th sleeping near the front. He had been in constant combat for the last 50 hours and had just taken part in the Capture of the Schwaben Redoubt, one of the few major British victories during the Somme. Upon arriving back at Bouzincourt, Tolkien learned that Gilson was dead.

German trenches on the Somme. Tolkien's unit were responsible for capturing
the Schwaben redoubt, on the top right of this photo. 

Tolkien would remain, apart from bouts with illness, at the front until October, and took part in several British attacks on German positions. At one point he bedded down with a Anglican chaplain, who would later describe the lack of sleep that he and Tolkien suffered from due to constant attacks by lice and other vermin which infested the trenches. Tolkien's war finally ended on 27 October, 1916. The lice had given him trench fever, and he was invalided back to England the next month. He spent the remained of the war either in hospitals or in garrison or training duties due to his shattered health. He was made a First Lieutenant in 1918, and was finally discharged from the army in 1920.

During the war nearly all of Tolkien's friends were killed. In addition to Gilson, G.B. Smith was killed on December 3, 1916, when he died of his wounds four days after being hit by shrapnel on the Somme. On July 22nd Ralph Payton was killed in unknown circumstances just a few miles from where Tolkien was stationed; his body was never found. Thomas Kenneth Barnsley was killed on August 1, 1917, in Ypres Belgium. The year before, shortly before being promoted to Captain, Barnsley had been buried alive by an artillery strike but had survived. Wilfrid Payton was killed, also in unknown circumstances, on July 22, 1916.

The war had killed all but one of Tolkien's close friends, Christopher Wiseman. Tolkien himself had survived the war, but carried the scars of it for the rest of his life. He would write late in life "One has indeed personally to come under the the shadow of war to feel fully its oppression... by 1918 all but one of my close friends were dead."  Tolkien continued to be occasionally hampered by ill health for the rest of his life, before dying in 1973. By this point he had become a knight, an influential scholar, and a world-renowned fantasy author.

The war had quickly aged Tolkien. He is photographed here near the publication of the Hobbit in 1937

Tolkien's distaste for war and all things "evil" can be seen throughout his writing. In later life he would make more friends, including CS Lewis, nearly all of whom had also survived the terrors of the Great War and who would live through the Second World War as civilians. These experiences surely affected their outlooks and, to one degree or another, shaped their written works.

There are a few good books on the subject. By far the best is Tolkien and the Great War: The Threshold of Middle-Earth by John Garth. The book explores Tolkien's early years through the end of the war in great detail, and gives detailed examinations of his written works during this period. Garth gives way more detail and depth to this topic, and I can't recommend this book enough.

A Hobbit, A Wardrobe, and a Great War: How JRR Tolkien and CS Lewis Rediscovered Faith, Friendship, and and Heroism in the Cataclysm of 1914-1918 by Joseph Loconte came out last year, and I haven't had a chance to read it, but it has gotten excellent reviews and it's at the top of my reading list.

And finally, if you haven't , read some of Tolkien's work!

That's it folks, I'll see you soon!

Bushi-NO: The Myth of the Samurai Chivalric Code

You've probably heard of Bushido, the Japanese samurai "Way of the Warrior". Maybe you come across it in a film like The Last Samurai (more on that in a future blog), or encountered it while watching a Japanese anime or reading a manga. If you're like me, you're a huge fan of Akira Kurosawa, who made numerous classic films exploring Samurai themes where the tenants of Bushido occupy a central role.

Kurosawa's Ran

Even if you've never come across it in popular culture, you may have learned about Bushido in school or at a museum. It was the code that inspired Samurai to take their own lives after a defeat. The code which launched the Empire of Japan and saw the Japanese military commit unspeakable atrocities. It even inspired Kamikazes to sacrifice their lives by flying their aircraft into American ships during the Second World War. There's just one problem: it never existed. 

Okay, that's not entirely true. It existed; it exists now afterall. But it was never a single unified concept during the Samurai period. Infact, the concept of Bushido as it's known now, and even the word Bushido is almost entirely an invention of the late 1800's. 

Modern Kendo practitioners

So just in case you're not familiar with the concept, Bushido is a Japanese word meaning "the way of the warrior". It is often compared with the western concept of chivalry; it was supposedly a code which governed the behavior of Samurai. It encouraged them to be loyal to their lord, practice military disciplines, to be respectful of superiors, etc. Today it is most commonly encountered in popular culture, discussed among martial arts instructors and practitioners, or read about in history books. There have even been books written about "professional" or "corporate" Bushido. 

The first Samurai came to power after the Genpei War in the 1180's CE. Samurai were not, contrary to popular western opinion, honorable warriors living by a strict code. Especially early on they were little more than well-armed mercenaries, fighting for the richest lord. During times of peace, lower ranking Samurai could be dangerous; they were unpredictable and the threat of them turning against their overlords frightened the Daimyo, the lords of the powerful clans. Some of these lords began introducing house codes; lists of rules or books outlining the behavior of their Samurai. But throughout the entire Samurai period there was no unified "handbook" of Bushido; in fact the word would have been entirely unknown. And make no mistake, these codes were needed. Samurai had no problem murdering, stealing, killing their own lords, resorting to assassination, These codes were an attempt to impose some sort of order of the Samurai, to varying degrees of success. 

17th Century decorative screen showing a scene from the Genpei War

In addition to these house codes, over time numerous myths and legends which revolved around the early Samurai began to appear. In part these were inspired by Buddhism, and in part by the desire to maintain discipline by the lords in their domains. Over time, similar to the Arthurian legends in Europe, these became more and more popular and began to idealize the past. 

Fast forward to the 1700's. The Samurai were living in one of the most peaceful periods of human history under the Tokugawa Shogunate. For over one hundred years Japan hadn't seen a single major

Woodblock print showing drunken Samurai fighting over a woman

war or disturbance, and for the time being the Shogun's sealing of the country had left the nation isolated. The Samurai warrior class had lost their purpose. They were prohibited from most professions, and most turned increasingly to running martial arts schools, writing poetry, or simply turning to drunkeness. They neglected their military duties, allowing their armor to fall into disrepair and their skills to slacken. Some Samurai took exception to this, and a number wrote manifestos against this. Perhaps the most famous was the Hakagure written by Yamamoto Tsunetomo written in the first two decades of the 18th Century. However, these again were not handbooks or manuals; instead they were manifestos against what they saw as an existential crisis facing the Samurai class. These were rarely widely circulated; Hakagure itself wouldn't be published widely until the close of the next century. 

Perry and the Americans arrive in Japan. Polite looking group, ain't they?

Another century later the Americans arrived and Japan was changed forever. The Shogunate proved itself incapable of defendign Japan from western powers. The Japanese leanred of the fat that China was suffering against colonial powers, and worried they might be next. A group of Domains, made up mostly of traditional enemies of the Tokugawa Shogunate, began advocating for a new government and a return to the power of the Emperor. These groups claimed that Japan would have to return to the old glory of the Samurai talked about in the hold house codes and myths to survive. They advocated a return to Imperial power, as in the glory days before the first Shogun had come to power. 

Interestingly, these men were all Samurai themselves, but quickly advocated for the end of the Samurai class and traditions. In their minds the only way to save Japan was to westernize fully, and to

Colorized photo of Meiji-period Samurai in traditional dress

do it quickly. Some of these leaders believed something extreme might be required; a few even felt that Japan would have to abandon its language and adopt English as a native tongue to survive in this new world. In 1868 the Meiji Emperor was restored and westernization took off fully; swords and traditional Samurai hairstyles and dress were banned, and European manners and technologies began to be adopted. Some of the old Shogunate loyalists fought back (contrary to many popular depictions, they also used western military technology and advisers, and the image of medieval Samurai charging Gatling Guns is a modern myth). These were all crushed. 

In the late 1880's a new generation of leaders began to come to power. They had been born in the last years of the Shogunate, and harbored none of the resentment towards the old system that their parents and grandparents had. Many were worried that Japan was losing its self identity and moral compass. A number of thinkers began to try to find a middle way; to discover how western nations had preserved their unique cultures and self-identities while still becoming world powers they began to travel abroad. 

Ozaki. Where can I get a hat like that?

One of these was Ozaki Yukio, today known as the father of the Japanese constitution. While traveling in England he encountered an idea which he immediately took a liking to; the concept of the English Gentleman. England was similar to Japan in many ways; it was goverened by an ancient monarchy, inhabited an island, and across a narrow expanse of sea it had a massive continental rival. However, while Japan was struggling to catch up to the west, Britain had build the largest empire the world had ever seen. Ozaki came to believe that one of the keys to this success was the concept of English morality and the gentleman ideal. The English gentleman was brave, kind, maintained a stiff upper lip, was humorous and slow to anger, but was terrible once his temper was sparked. Perhaps most importantly, this was an ideal that cut across class lines (at least in Ozaki's mind). Every Englishman endeavored to be a Gentleman regardless of his class or social standing. 

Ozaki began to think of ways to apply these principals in Japan, and he soon found a way. The concept of the Gentleman had developed out of the European code of Chivalry. Chivalry was the way of the knight, and Ozaki reasoned that the Samurai had simply been the Japanese version of knights. His ideas soon spread and began to gain traction; if the Japanese could lock into their own ancient warrior code, they might just find some of the success the west enjoyed. 

I think Ozaki may have been looking at things through rose-colored glasses...

Japanese intellectuals were soon running with this idea; all of the great western nations had followed an ancient warrior code to some degree, so why shouldn't Japan? One famous early work, Bushido: Soul of Japan became famous in America because it was written in English by a Japanese man living in the United States. The work wasn't translated into Japanese for many years, and when it was it was actually criticized in Japan for being "too American" in outlook! Despite its response in Japan, the book formed many of the ideas about Bushido and the Japanese character many American still harbor today. 

A problem would arise though; unlike Chivalry, Bushido had never really been a set code. There was

And you thought I was done picking on the Baltic Fleet

no handbook on how to be a Samurai. Authors began using the new concept to push any viewpoint they wished (Ozaki himself had actually used it to prove the validity of his liberal ideals). As the Japanese empire began to grow, especially after the Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese War (discussed in my last post!). The west began looking for the key to Japan's success, and Japan's leaders, inspired by the intellectuals writing on the subject in their own country, found that the key lay in Bushido. The concept began to permeate Japanese thought. It could be shaped to inspire loyalty in the Emperor (and by extension, the government and later, military), and it explained Japan's unqualified success, even against a major western power. 

Around this time (the late 19th and early 20th century) Bushido began to be used more and more by the government. It appeared as a concept in important works, such as the Imperial Rescripts of Education and on Soldiers and Sailors. These all encouraged loyalty to the death and helped the military, increasingly becoming more powerful in the government, to tighten their hold on power. Leaders looked back to the most extreme cases of Samurai loyalty (like the case of the 47 Ronin), and began to promulgate the idea that these hadn't been extreme cases; they were the norm. 

USS Bunker Hill after being struck by Kamikaze aircraft piloted by Ensign
Kiyoshi Ogawa, pictured Below

This leads us to the World Wars and Japan's military empire in the early 20th Century. Japanese soldiers and sailors were urged to be loyal unto death like the Samurai of old (who, like I said, never really existed). I won't get into all of it here, but suffice to say you know how this turns out for Japan; a brutal war and a major bombing campaign later, Japan lay defeated. Authorities in both the US and Japan distanced themselves from the old regime, and as a result, from Bushido for a time. But by the mid-1950's the concept was coming back, again in a new form. Its ideas were again reinterpreted (thanks to there being no set system in the first place) to

Engisn Kiyoshi Ogawa

encourage personal excellence and good citizenship. These ideas seeped back into the public education sector, the business community, and the martial arts community.

And that's where the concept as you probably recognize it today comes from. Because the system hadn't really existed in the first place, it was easy to interpret however one wanted to fit with the times. It's incredibly useful; it can simultaneously be used as a scapegoat for all of Japan's past crimes as well as used to explain its many modern successes. As a concept, it has just as much to owe to the European knight and the English Gentleman as it does to ancient master swordsmen and Asian mystics. Perhaps because of its malleability, and its mysteriousness, it has persevered to this day. 

A couple of excellent sources are available on this topic. One is Inventing the Way of the Samurai: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushido in Modern Japan by Oleg Benesch. Benesch gets into WAY more detail than I was able to here, and if you can find a copy online or at your local library (I found it free on Google books!) I highly suggest it. 

The Hakagure, discussed earlier, is a great look at the things Samurai of the Tokugawa period found important. A deep reading of the book also makes clear that there was no set standard for Samurai behavior, even at the late period of its publication. 

For a deeper look into the development of modern Japanese culture (and Bushido< check out Eiko Ikegami's The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan. 

That's it!